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PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES IN TEACHING

CONTENT KNOWLEDGE – pag-unawa sa nilalaman at may kakayahang ipaliwanag ito sa makabuluhang anyo para sa mga estudyante.

PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE – mga koneksyon batay sa pananaliksik sa pagitan ng pagtuturo at pag-aaral.

STRATEGIES – mga plano batay sa pananaliksik kung paano ilalahad ng mabuti at maayos ang isang aralin.

EFFECTIVE TEACHING BEHAVIORS

 LESSON CLARITY – ginagawa ng guro ang kanilang mga punto na maliwanag at i-explain ang concepts nang malinaw. At kinakailangan rin na ang boses ni teacher ay malakas nang sa ganun ay maririnig ang kanyang mga sinasabi sa bawat sulok ng classroom.

INSTRUCTIONAL VARIETY – ay tumutukoy sa paggamit ng mga iba’t ibang uri ng instructional aids para sa mga diverse learners.

TEACHER TASK ORIENTATION – tumutukoy sa matalinong paggamit ng oras para sa pagtuturo ng aralin. Kinakailangan seguradohin ng guro na ang mga objectives o competencies ng isang aralin ay dapat na ma-atain ng mga estudyante sa itinakdang panahon.

ENGAGEMENT IN THE LEARNING PROCESS – tumutukoy ito sa dami ng oras ng pag-aaral ng mga estudyante sa isang aralin. Kinakailangan ay makompromiso (engage) ng guro ang interes at atensyon ng mga estudyante sa kanyang aralin.

STUDENT SUCCESS RATE – tumutukoy ito sa achievement ng isang bata sa isang pagsasanay at gawain. Nagrereflect ang performance ni teacher sa pagtuturo sa success ni student.

TYPES OF TEACHING APPROACHES/METHODS/STRATEGIES

DIRECT/TEACHER-CENTERED APPROACH – ang guro ay direktang nag-tratransmit ng impormasyon sa mag-aaral.

Deductive method – nagsisimula sa isang panuntunan o kalahatan na inilalapat sa mga particular na kaso o mga halimbawa. Naglalayon nito na subukan ang panuntunan o lutasin ang ibinigay na problema.

Demonstration or Showing method – (learning by observation and imitation) ang guro o isang piling grupo ng mga mag-aaral ay gumaganap ng aktibidad. Ang demonstrasyon ay maaaring live, filmed, o electrically presented. Natututo ang mga estudyante sa pamamagitan ng pag-obserba o pagsasanay na may mga tunay na simulation ng kagamitan.

 Lecture method – ay isang pamamaraan ng pagtuturo para sa pagpapaliwanag ng isang pangunahing ideya sa anyo ng tanong o problema. Itinuturing ito bilang isang pinaka-awtoribong paraan ng pagtuturo (Authorative method of teaching).

 INDIRECT METHOD/LEARNER-CENTERED APPROACH- mga estudyante ang naghahanap ng impormasyon.

Concept Development Method – itunututro ang subject matter sa mga estudyante upang makagawa o makapaggenerate sila ng concepts.

Discovery Method – Ang pamamaraang ito ay tumutukoy sa isang Inductive method sa paggabay ng mga learners upang talakayin at ayusin ang mga ideya at proseso sa pamamagitan ng kanilang sariling paraan.

Inductive Method – ito ay nakakatulong sa mga estudyante sa paghahanap ng mga panuntunan at katotohanan sa kanilang sariling paraan.

 Laboratory Method – ginagamit upang matuklasan o i-verify ang mga katotohanan at mag-aral ng mga bagay-bagay na may kaugnayan sa agham/science.

Problem-Solving Method – ginagamit nito ang isang problema bilang isang pinakgitnang bahagi sa paghahanap ng solusyon.

Project Method – ang mga pamamaraang ito ay nailalarawan sa pamamagitan ng learner’s planning, directing at pagsasagawa ng mga activities na may layunin, natural, may buhay at makabuluhan.

OTHER MODELS/TEACHING STRATEGIES

Brainstorming – ay isang proseso para sa pagbuo ng mga malikhaing ideya at solusyon sa pamamagitan ng intensive at freewheeling discussion group.

Constructivist Teaching – naniniwala na ang learning ay nangyayari habang ang mga estudyante ay aktibong kasangkot sa isang proseso ng kahulugan at konstruksiyon ng kaalaman.

Coopperative Learning – gumagamit ng iba’t-ibang mga aktibidad sa pag-aaral upang mapabuti ang kanilang pag-unawa sa isang paksa.

Distance Learning – o distance education kung tawagin, ay isang paraan ng paghahatid ng edukasyon at pagtuturo, madals sa isang indibidwal na batayan, sa mga estudyante na hindi pisikal na naroroon sa isang tradisyonal na setting tulad ng silid aralan.

Field Trip – ito ay nangyayari sa labas ng classroom at nag-aalok ng pagkakataon para sa mga mag-aaral na makuha ng pagkakalantad sa “tunay”na mga tao at mga kaganapan at pagkakataon na gumawa ng mga koneksyon sa iba.

Metacognitive Teaching – (Thinking beyond Thinking) paggabay ng mga guro sa mga estudyante na maging mas madiskarte sap ag-iisip sa pamamagitan ng pagtulong sa kanila na maunawaan ang paraan ng pagpoproseso ng impormasyon.

Panel Discussion – binubuo ito ng isang grupo ng 3 hanggang 6 na tao na may isang mapakay nap ag-uusap sa isang nakatalagang paksa na may o walang aktibong pakikilahok ng madla.

Peer Tutoring – ang pagtatalaga ng mga estudyante upang tulungan ang isa’t-isa sa isang one-on-one basis o sa isang maliit na grupo sa iba’t-ibang sitwasyon.

Problem-based Learning – Hinahamon ang mga estudyante na matuto sa pamamagitan ng pakikipag-ugnayan sa isang real world problem.

Reflective Teaching – ay isang tugon sa nakaraang karanasan at nagsasangkot sa conscious recall at pagsusuri ng karanasan bilang batayan para sa pagsusuri at paggawa ng desisyon at bilang isang mapagkukunan para sa pagplaplano at pagkilos.

Role Playing – pagpoportray o pagsasaganap sa isang sitwasyon, kondisyon, o mga pangyayari hingil sa tunay na buhay.

Simulation – kumakatawan o mag-modelo ng isang tunay na sistema, sitwasyon o pangyayari.

Socratic Method – Ang guro ay hindi nagbibigay ng impormasyon nang direkta ngunit sa halip ay nagbibigay ito ng mga serye ng mga katanungan. Ang layunnin nito ay upang tulongan ang mga estudyante sap ag-proseso ng mga impormasyon at makisali sa mas malalim nap ag-unawa sa mga paksa.

Symposium – ay isang pormal na aktibidad kung saan 2 hanggang 5 na tao ang nagsasalita o nagtatalakay sa isang paksa.

JACOB KOUNIN’S MGT MODEL (1970)

1,) WITH-IT-NESS – more aware kung ano mga nangyayari sa klase.

2.) OVERLAPPING – ang guro ay maaaring makitungo sa isang off-target na gawain nang hindi nakakaabala kung ano ang ginagawa niya.

3.) SMOOTHNESS AND MOTIVATION – Maraming iba’t-ibang pagbabago ng aktibidad sa isang araw ng paaralan; paglipat mula sa isang aktibidad sa isa pang pangangailangan upang maging maayos. Ngunit may kaugalian na dapat iwasan ito ay:

 Stimulus-boundedness – ang nagambalang atensyon ni teacher dahil sa isang extraneous stimulus. Halimbawa: Ang mga estudyante ay nagsusulat ng notes – pagkatapos ay nagsabi ang guro sa klase tungkol paggawa ng notes para sa kanilang magulang pagkatapos ng kasalukuyang gawain.

Thrusts – ang guro ay nakakagambala sa mga estudyant na nakikibahagi sa mga aktibidad na walang babala o isinasaalang-alang kung ang mga estudyante ba ay handa o hindi.

Dangles – ang guro na pumupunta sa isang aralin at sa isa pang aralin na nawawala sa direksyon o wastong pagkakasunod-sunod ng aralin.

Flip-flops – ang guro na pabago-bago ng isip.

Overdwelling – ang guro ay gumagamit ng masyadong maraming oras sa isang aspeto ng aralin o ilang aspeto ng pag-uugali ng mag-aaral, kung kayat nangyayari hindi matapos-tapos at mabagal na usad ng aralin.

Fragmentation – pagbibigay ng guro ng isang aktibidad sa isang mag-aaral na tatagal ng ilang oras bago tumawag ng iba. Kung kaya’t nagiging mabagal minsan ang usad ng aralin.

4.) GROUP ALERTING SKILL – kinakailangan ng guro na makuha ang atensyon ng mga estudyante at panatilihin ito mula sa simula habang nagbabago ang mga aktibidad sa loob ng isang aralin.

FINAL COACHING BULLETS

Stimulus bounded- distracted by outside stimuli easily.
Horizontal mobility- a teacher in brgy. School transferred in town.
Vertical mobility- teacher being promoted as supervisor
Nuclear family- father, mother and their children
Extended family- parents and other relatives
Solitary play- children play toys by themselves
Onlooker play- children watch others play but not involved
Parallel play- children watch alongside not with each other.
Associative play- parehas ang kanilang nilalaro
Baduy- awkward looking
Transmuted- changed
Carnal- bold
Aplomb- composure
Loquacious- verbose
Profanity- obscenities
Rizal was born- calamba, laguna
Penchant- fondness
Eureka- discovery
Metaphor- "the lord is my sheperd"
Hyperbole- " he is the blacksheep in the family"
Geoffrey Chaucer- morning star of English lit.
Shakespear- "Bard of avon"
Nature- heredity, IQ, character traits
Nurture- environment
Phelogenetic- development follows orderly sequence
Ontogenetic- rate of dev. Is unique
Cepalocaudal- dev. From head to foot
Proximodistal- central access
Iconic- by seeing ex. Pictures
Symbolic- by symbols ex. Words and numbers
Inactive- learning by doing physical action
Socrates- " know thyself"
Plato- " wrote the republic"
Aristotle- "father of modern sciences"
Albert bandura- social learning theory/ modelling
Kohlberg- moral dev. Theory
Pavlov- classical conditioning
Skinner- operant conditioning
John amos comenius- " orbis pictus"
NCBTS -national Competency-based teacher standards
tanaga 7777
tanka 57577
Tree releases carbon dioxide during? ~ evening
tatlong tuldok na sunod-sunod = elipsis
town criers~~~umalohokan
Meaning of TOS ~~~table of Specifications
Sage on stage ~~dispenser of knowledge
Negative effect of extended family~ FAVORITISM.
Bicameralism~~ Jones Law
Ang _____ay ang bantas na ginagamit sa pagitan ng panlaping IKA at Tambilang~~~GITLING
She is a lovely rose" is an example of~~metaphor
Had I studied very well, I ___________ rewarded with vacation in the US~~would have been
She is a lovely rose" is an example of~~metaphor
Had I studied very well, I ___________ rewarded with vacation in the US~~would have been
___________ is an example of a non pathogenic microorganism~~ Probiotics as bifidobacterium
First labor union in the Philippines~~~Union Obrera Demokratika
The only remnant after world war II~~Philippine Independent Church
Sa mga Soc Sci major mag focus po kayo sa Economics

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

SUBCATEGORIES OF TEACHER MOVEMENT/MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT
1. THRUST – proceeding without assessing
2. DANGLING – hanging activity by giving another
3. TRUNCATION – leaves activity
4. FLIP-FLOP – returns to a left activity while currently
doing an activity
5. STIMULUS-BOUND – distracted
6. OVERDWELLING – overtime in one topic
7. OVERLAPPING – multitasking results negatively
ISM’s IN EDUCATION
BEHAVIORISM – change ESSENTIALISM – basic
EXISTENTIALISM – choice HUMANISM – build
IDEALISM – enough in mind PERRENIALISM – constant
PRAGMATISM - practice (T&E) PROGRESSIVISM – improve
REALISM – enough to see UTILITARIANISM - best
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIVISM – benefit of all
AIMS OF ERAS
PRE-SPANISH – survival and conformity
SPANISH – Christianity
AMERICAN – democratic ideals and way of life
COMMONWEALTH – moral character, efficiency
JAPANESE – progress
PROF. ED PROPONENTS
B.F. SKINNER – Operant Conditioning
BANDURA – Modeling
BANDURA & WALLACE – Social Learning
CARL JUNG – Psychological
CARL JUNG – Psychological
CONFICIUS – Education for all, Golden Rule
EDWARD THORNDIKE – Connectionism
ERICK ERIKSON – Psychosocial
IVAN PAVLOV – Classical Conditioning
JEAN PIAGET – Cognitive FROEBEL - Father of Kndrgrtn
PEZTALLOZI – realia, Froebel’s protégé
JEROME BRUNER – Instrumental Conceptualism
JOHN DEWEY – learning by doing
JOHN LOCKE – Tabula Rasa (blank sheet)
KOHLERS – Insight Learning
LAURENCE KOHLBERG – Moral Development
LEV VGOTSKY – Social Cognitivist, Scaffolding
SIGMUND FREUD – Psychosexual
WILLIAM SHELDON – Physiological
PRINCIPLES
HEDONISM – pleasure principle
DOUBLE EFFECT – sacrifice for the good or bad
FORMAL COOPERATION – cooperation with will
LESSER EVIL – choice of the less one from two bad things
MATERIAL COOPERATION – cooperation without will
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL/PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
1. ORAL (0-1 yrs. old) – Infant
2. ANAL (1-3 yrs. old) – Toddler
3. PHALLIC – Preschool
4. LATENCY – School Age
5. GENITAL – Adolescense
OEDIPUS – son to mom ELECTRA – daughter to dad
LAWS IN EDUCATION
PRC BR 435 – Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
PD 1006 – Decree Professionalizing Teachers
RA NO. 1425 – inclusion of the works of Jose Rizal
RA NO. 4670 – “Magna Carta for Public School Teacher”
RA 7722 – CHED
RA 7796 – “TESDA Act of 1994”
RA 7836 – Phil. Teachers Professionalization Act of 1994
RA 9155 – BEGA (Basic Educ.) or DepEd Law
RA 9293 – Teachers Professionalization Act
RA 10533 – K-12 Law
ACT NO. 2706 – “Private School Law”
COMMONWEALTH ACT NO. 578 – “persons in authority”
KAUTUSANG PANGKAGAWARAN BLG 7 - PILIPINO NatlLng
PROKLAMA BLG 12 - Linggo ng Wika (Balagtas,Mr29-Ap4)
PROKLAMA BLG. 186 – Linggo ng Wika (Quezon,Ag13-19)
PROKLAMA BLG. 1041 – Buwan ng Wika (Ramos)
PHIL. CONSTITUTION ACT 14 – ESTACS
RA 1079 – no limit of Civil Service eligibility
RA 6655 – “Free Public Secondary Educ. Act of 1988”
RA 6728 – “Act Providing Government Assistance to
Students and Teachers in Private Education
RA 7277 – Magna Carta for PWD
RA 7610 – Anti-Child Abuse Law (Amendment: RA 9231)
RA 7743 – establishment of public libraries
RA 7877 – “Anti Sexual Harassment Act of 1995”
RA 7880 – “Fair and Equitable Access to Education Act”
RA 8049 – Anti-Hazing Law
RA 8187 – Paternity Act
RA 10627 – Anti-Bullying
SB 1987 ART. 14 SEK. 6-9 – FILIPINO (National Language)
BRUNER’S THREE MODES OF REPRESENTATION
1. ENACTIVE (0-1 yrs. old) – action-based information
2. ICONIC (1-6 yrs. old) – image-based information
3. SYMBOLIC (7+) – code/symbols such as language
TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
COGNITIVE:
BLOOM (LOTS) ANDERSON (HOTS)
o Knowledge
o Comprehension
o Application
o Analysis
o Synthesis
o Evaluation o Remembering
o Understanding
o Applying
o Analyzing
o Evaluating
o Creating
AFFECTIVE:
o Receiving
o Responding
o Valuing
o Organizing
o Characterization
PSYCHOMOTOR:
SIMPSON HARROW
o Perception
o Set
o Guided Response
o Mechanism
o Complex Overt Response
o Adaptation
o Origination o Reflex movement
o Fundamental Movement
o Physical Movement
o Perceptual Abilities
o Skilled Movements
o Non-discursive communication
DALES CONE OF EXPERIENCE
Read
Hear
Picture
Video
Exhibit
Demonstration
Collaborative Work
Simulation
Real thing
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL TASKS
1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST (0-12 months)
2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME/DOUBT (1-3 years old)
3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3-6 years old)
4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (6-12 years old)
5. INDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-18 years old)
6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (early 20s-early 40s
7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION (40s-mid 60s)
8. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR (mid 60s-death)
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY
1. SENSORY – senses
2. PRE-OPERATIONAL - imagination
3. CONCRETE 4. FORMAL
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. VACUUM TUBES (1940-1956)
2. TRANSISTORS (1956-1963)
3. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1964-1971)
4. MICROPROCESSORS (1971-present)
5. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (present-future)
MISTAKEN GOALS
1. ATTENTION SEEKER – “teacher, notice me”
2. REVENGE – “teacher, I am hurt”
3. POWER-SEEKING – “teacher, may I help?”
4. INAD.
✔NATURALISM -- only nature exist, nature is better than civilization (NATURALESA ng isang BAGAY)
✔IDEALISM -- spiritual, values, moral, socratic method
✔REALISM -- natural world, values arenatural and absolute, reality exist undercieved
✔PRAGMATISM/¬¬¬¬¬EXPERIMENTALISM -- practical, problem solving research, knowledge is what works, values are related, truth is warranted assertion.
✔ESSENTIALISM -- 3r's (4r's ngayon), achievement test, certain knowledge&skills are essential for rational being.
✔PROGRESSIVISM -- process of development, higher level of knowledge, the child's need and interest are relevant to curriculum.
✔EXISTENTIALISM -- knowledge is subjective, man shapes his being as he lives, we are what we do, deciding precedes knowing.
✔PERENNIALISM -- education that last for century, universalist, knowledge is eternally valid.
✔SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIVISM -- for better society, community based learning
✔RECONSTRUCTUONALISM -- the school should help rebuild the social order thus social change.
✔BEHAVIORISM -- learning is change in behavior, S-R relationship
✔EMPIRICISM -- knowledge comes thru senses, 5 senses (observatory learning)
✔STRUCTURALISM -- complex mental exp. such as image,feeling and sensation
✔FUNCTIONALISM -- focus to motivation, thinking & learning.
✔PURPOSIVISM -- individual hormones are responsible for the motive to strive towards fulfillment of his/her objective.
✔PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS -- reality is what verifiable, truth correspondes to reality, usage determines meaning
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
SUBCATEGORIES OF TEACHER MOVEMENT/MOVEMENT MANAGEMENT
1. THRUST – proceeding without assessing
2. DANGLING – hanging activity by giving another
3. TRUNCATION – leaves activity
4. FLIP-FLOP – returns to a left activity while currently
doing an activity
5. STIMULUS-BOUND – distracted
6. OVERDWELLING – overtime in one topic
7. OVERLAPPING – multitasking results negatively
ISM’s IN EDUCATION
BEHAVIORISM – change ESSENTIALISM – basic
EXISTENTIALISM – choice HUMANISM – build
IDEALISM – enough in mind PERRENIALISM – constant
PRAGMATISM – practice (T&E) PROGRESSIVISM – improve
REALISM – enough to see UTILITARIANISM – best
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIVISM – benefit of all
AIMS OF ERAS
PRE-SPANISH – survival and conformity
SPANISH – Christianity
AMERICAN – democratic ideals and way of life
COMMONWEALTH – moral character, efficiency
JAPANESE – progress
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION PROPONENTS
B.F. SKINNER – Operant Conditioning
BANDURA – Modeling
BANDURA & WALLACE – Social Learning
CARL JUNG – Psychological
CONFICIUS – Education for all, Golden Rule
EDWARD THORNDIKE – Connectionism
ERICK ERIKSON – Psychosocial
IVAN PAVLOV – Classical Conditioning
JEAN PIAGET – Cognitive FROEBEL – Father of Kndrgrtn
PEZTALLOZI – realia, Froebel’s protégé
JEROME BRUNER – Instrumental Conceptualism
JOHN DEWEY – learning by doing
JOHN LOCKE – Tabula Rasa (blank sheet)
KOHLERS – Insight Learning
LAURENCE KOHLBERG – Moral Development
LEV VGOTSKY – Social Cognitivist, Scaffolding
SIGMUND FREUD – Psychosexual
WILLIAM SHELDON – Physiological
PRINCIPLES
HEDONISM – pleasure principle
DOUBLE EFFECT – sacrifice for the good or bad
FORMAL COOPERATION – cooperation with will
LESSER EVIL – choice of the less one from two bad things
MATERIAL COOPERATION – cooperation without will
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL/PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY
1. ORAL (0-1 yrs. old) – Infant
2. ANAL (1-3 yrs. old) – Toddler
3. PHALLIC – Preschool
4. LATENCY – School Age
5. GENITAL – Adolescence
@adminReygo
PILLARS OF LEARNING
Learning to know" HEAD" ---- Knowledge
Learning to Be "HEART" Awareness and understanding
Learning to Do "HAND"-- Skill and actions
Learning to Live "VALUES" Attitudes
Learning to To Transform is which involves all Pillars,
Learning to know - To recognize the evolving nature of the concept of sustainability - To reflect the ever-growing needs of societies - To acknowledge that fulfilling local needs often has international effects and consequences - To address content, context, global issues and local priorities Learning to be - To build on the principles and values that underline sustainable development -To deal with the well-being of all three realms of sustainability environment, society, and economy - To contribute to a person complete development: mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic appreciation and spirituality Learning to live together - To build capacity for community -based decision making, social tolerance, environmental stewardship, adaptable workforce and quality of life Learning to do - To contribute to a concrete reality for all our daily decisions and actions - To build a sustainable and safe world for everyone

Fathers of different Fields
★Father of Biology: Aristotle
★Father of Physics: Albert Einstein
★Father of Chemistry: Jabir Bin Hayan
★Father of Statistics: Ronald Fisher
★Father of Zoology: Aristotle
★Father of History: Herodotus
★Father of Microbiology: Louis Pasteur
★Father of Botany: Theophrastus
★Father of Algebra: Diophantus
★Father of Blood groups: Landsteiner
★Father of Electricity: Benjamin Franklin
★Father of Trigonometry: Hipparchus
★Father of Geometry: Euclid
★Father of Modern Chemistry: Antoine Lavoisier
★Father of Robotics: Nikola Tesla
★Father of Electronics: Ray Tomlinson
★Father of Internet: Vinton Cerf
★Father of Economics: Adam Smith
★Father of Video game: Thomas T. Goldsmith, Jr.
★Father of Architecture: Imhotep
★Father of Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel
★Father of Nanotechnology: Richard Smalley
★Father of Robotics:;Al-Jazari
★Father of C language: Dennis Ritchie
★Father of World Wide Web: Tim Berners-Lee
★Father of Search engine: Alan Emtage
★Father of Periodic table: Dmitri Mendeleev
★Father of Taxonomy: Carolus Linnaeus
★Father of Surgery (early): Sushruta
★Father of Mathematics: Archimedes
★Father of Medicine: Hippocrates
★Father of Homeopathy: Samuel Hahnemann
★Father of Law: Cicero

PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

Psychosexual Development

Oral Stage (0-1 yrs. old) – Infant

Anal Stage (1-3 yrs. old) – Toddler

Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs. old) preschoolers

Latency Stage (age 6 - puberty) school age

Genital Stage (adolescence /puberty onwards)

Personality Component

ID (pleasure principles) infancy

EGO (reality principles) preschooler

SUPEREGO (morality principles) near end of preschool

3 Levels of Mind

CONCIOUS - all that we are aware of that are stored in our conscious mind.

UNCONCIOUS - all that we go through (feelings, beliefs, impulses deep within)

SUBCONCIOUS (a.k.a. Pre-Conscious) – the part of us that’s hidden unless we search for it

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

3 Basic Cognitive Concept

1. Schema – Building blocks of knowledge

2. Adaptation Processes (3)

Assimilation – using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

Accommodation – happens when an existing schema does not work and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation

Equilibration – occurs when a child’s schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. But when our experiences do not match our schemata, we experience cognitive disequilibrium

3. Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor stage (birth - infancy)

Highlight:

Object Permanence - ability to know that an object still exists even when out of sight

Stage 2. Pre-operational stage (2-7yrs) preschool years

Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature

Child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend

Highlights on this stage:

Symbolic Function – ability to represent objects and events

Egocentrism – the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view

Centration – the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.

Irreversibility – inability to reverse their thinking Can understand 2+3=5 but cannot understand that 5-3=2

Animism – attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects (e.g. Mr. Sun is asleep)

Transductive Reasoning – reasoning appears to be from particular to particular (i.e. If A causes B, then B causes A)

Stage 3. Concrete-operational stage (8-11 yrs.) elementary school years

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.

Decentering – no longer focused or limited to one aspect or dimension which makes the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations

Reversibility – can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse

Conservation – the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.

Seriation – ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

Stage 4. Formal-operational stage (12-15 yrs.)

Thinking becomes logical

Can solve problems and hypothesize

This stage is characterized by the following:

Hypothetical Reasoning – the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision. Can answer what if questions.

Analogical Reasoning – the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use it to narrow down possible answers. Can make an analogy.

Deductive Reasoning – the ability to think logically by applying the general rule to a particular situation.

ENGLISH MAJOR : FREE CAMPUS JOURNALISM BULLETS

 

ENGLISH MAJOR : 40+ LITERARY DEVICES

 

FUTURE LPT!

Proverbs 3:5-6

5   Trust in the LORD with all your heart,
    and do not lean on your own understanding.
6   In all your ways acknowledge him,
    and he will make straight your paths.

What are literary devices?

A literary device is a writing technique that writers use to express ideas, convey meaning, and highlight important themes in a piece of text. A metaphor, for instance, is a famous example of a literary device.

Basically, literary devices are artistic; rhetorical devices are informative and persuasive. That said, there can still be quite a bit of overlap between the two

Now for the pièce de résistance: our full list of literary devices.

1. Allegory

An allegory is a type of narrative that uses characters and plot to depict abstract ideas and themes. In an allegorical story, things represent more than they appear to on the surface. Many children's fables, such as The Tortoise and the Hare, are simple allegories about morality — but allegories can also be dark, complex, and controversial. 

Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell. This dystopian novella is one of modern literature’s best-known allegories. A commentary on the events leading up to Stalin's rise and the formation of the Soviet Union, the pigs at the heart of the novel represent figures such as Stalin, Trotsky, and Molotov.

2. Alliteration

Alliteration describes a series of words in quick succession that all start with the same letter or sound. It lends a pleasing cadence to prose and Hamlet and the dollar as currency in Macbeth.

5. Anaphora

Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a series of clauses or sentences. It’s often seen in poetry and speeches, intended to provoke a emotional response in its audience.

Example: Martin Luther King’s 1963 “I Have A Dream” speech.

“I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed.

"… and I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit together at the table of brotherhood.

"… I have a dream that little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.”

Similar term: repetition

6. Anastrophe

Anastrophe is a figure of speech wherein the traditional sentence structure is reversed. So a typical verb-subject-adjective sentence such as “Are you ready?” becomes a Yoda-esque adjective-verb-subject question: “Ready, are you?” Or a standard adjective-noun pairing like “tall mountain” becomes “mountain tall.”

Example: “Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing.” — The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe

7. Anthropomorphism

To anthropomorphize is to apply human traits or qualities to a non-human thing such as objects, animals, or the weather. But unlike personification, in which this is done through figurative description, anthropomorphism is literal: a sun with a smiling face, for example, or talking dogs in a cartoon.

Examples: In Disney’s Beauty and the Beast, Mrs. Potts the teapot, Cogsworth the clock, and Lumière the candlestick are all household objects that act and behave like humans (which, of course, they were when they weren’t under a spell).

Similar term: personification

8. Aphorism

An aphorism is a universally accepted truth stated in a concise, to-the-point way. Aphorisms are typically witty and memorable, often becoming adages or proverbs as people repeat them over and over.

Example: “To err is human, to forgive divine.” — Alexander Pope

9. Archetype

An archetype is a “universal symbol” that brings familiarity and context to a story. It can be a character, a setting, a theme, or an action. Archetypes represent feelings and situations that are shared across cultures and time periods, and are therefore instantly recognizable to any audience — for instance, the innocent child character, or the theme of the inevitability of death.

Example: Superman is a heroic archetype: noble, self-sacrificing, and drawn to righting injustice whenever he sees it.

10. Chiasmus

Chiasmus is when two or more parallel clauses are inverted. “Why would I do that?” you may be wondering. Well, a chiasmus might sound confusing and unnecessary in theory, but it's much more convincing in practice — and in fact, you've likely already come across it before.

Example: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” — John F. Kennedy

11. Colloquialism

Colloquialism is the use of casual and informal language in writing, which can also include slang. Writers use colloquialisms to provide context to settings and characters, and to make their writing sound more authentic. Imagine reading a YA novel that takes place in modern America, and the characters speak to each other like this:

“Good morning, Sue. I hope that you slept well and are prepared for this morning’s science exam.”

It’s not realistic. Colloquialisms help create believable dialogue:

“Hey Sue, what’d you get up to last night? This science test is gonna suck.”

Example: Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh takes place in Scotland, a fact made undeniably obvious by the dialect: “Thing is, as ye git aulder, this character-deficiency gig becomes mair sapping. Thir wis a time ah used tae say tae aw the teachers, bosses, dole punters, poll-tax guys, magistrates, when they telt me ah was deficient: ’Hi, cool it, gadge, ah’m jist me, jist intae a different sort ay gig fae youse but, ken?’”

12. Cumulative sentence

A cumulative sentence (or “loose sentence”) is one that starts with an independent clause, but then has additional or modifying clauses. They’re often used for contextual or clarifying details. This may sound complex, but even, “I ran to the store to buy milk, bread, and toilet paper” is a cumulative sentence, because the first clause, “I ran to the store,” is a complete sentence, while the rest tells us extra information about your run to the store.

Example: “It was a large bottle of gin Albert Cousins had brought to the party, yes, but it was in no way large enough to fill all the cups, and in certain cases to fill them many times over, for the more than one hundred guests, some of whom were dancing not four feet in front of him.” – Commonwealth, Ann Patchett

13. Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony is when the readers know more about the situation going on than at least one of the characters involved. This creates a difference between the ways the audience and the characters perceive unfolding events. For instance, if we know that one character is having an affair, when that character speaks to their spouse, we will pick up on the lies and double-meanings of their words, while the spouse may take them at face value.

Example: In Titanic, the audience knows from the beginning of the movie that the boat will sink. This creates wry humor when characters remark on the safety of the ship.

14. Euphemism

A euphemism is an indirect, “polite” way of describing something too inappropriate or awkward to address directly. However, most people will still understand the truth about what's happening.

Example: When an elderly person is forced to retire, some might say they’re being “put out to pasture.”

15. Exposition

Exposition is when the narrative provides background information in order to help the reader understand what’s going on. When used in conjunction with description and dialogue, this literary device provides a richer understanding of the characters, setting, and events. Be careful, though — too much exposition will quickly become boring, thus undercutting the emotional impact of your work.

Example: “The Dursley’s had everything they wanted, but they also had a secret, and their greatest fear was that somebody would discover it.” – Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, J.K. Rowling

16. Flashback

Flashbacks to previous events split up present-day scenes in a story, usually to build suspense toward a big reveal. Flashbacks are also an interesting way to present exposition for your story, gradually revealing to the reader what happened in the past.

Example: Every other chapter in the first part of Gone Girl is a flashback, with Amy’s old diary entries describing her relationship with her husband before she disappeared.

Similar term: foreshadowing

17. Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is when the author hints at events yet to come in a story. Similar to flashbacks (and often used in conjunction with them), this technique is also used to create tension or suspense — giving readers just enough breadcrumbs to keep them hungry for more.

Example: One popular method of foreshadowing is through partial reveals — the narrator leaves out key facts to prompt readers’ curiosity. Jeffrey Eugenides does this in The Virgin Suicides: “On the morning the last Lisbon daughter took her turn at suicide – it was Mary this time, and sleeping pills, like Therese, the two paramedics arrived at the house knowing exactly where the knife drawer was, and the gas oven, and the beam in the basement from which it was possible to tie a rope.”

Similar term: flashback

18. Frame story

A frame story is any part of the story that "frames" another part of it, such as one character telling another about their past, or someone uncovering a diary or a series of news articles that then tell the readers what happened. Since the frame story supports the rest of the plot, it is mainly used at the beginning and the end of the narrative, or in small interludes between chapters or short stories.

Example: In The Name of the Wind by Patrick Rothfuss, Kvothe is telling Chronicler the story of his life over the span of three days. Most of the novel is the story he is telling, while the frame is any part that takes place in the inn.

19. Hyperbole

Hyperbole is an exaggerated statement that emphasizes the significance of the statement’s actual meaning. When a friend says, "Oh my god, I haven't seen you in a million years," that's hyperbole.

Example: “At that time Bogotá was a remote, lugubrious city where an insomniac rain had been falling since the beginning of the 16th century.” — Living to Tell the Tale by Gabriel García Márquez

20. Hypophora

Hypophora is much like a rhetorical question, wherein someone asks a question that doesn't require an answer. However, in hypophora, the person raises a question and answers it immediately themselves (hence the prefix hypo, meaning 'under' or 'before'). It’s often used when characters are reasoning something aloud.

Example: “Do you always watch for the longest day of the year and then miss it? I always watch for the longest day in the year and then miss it.” — Daisy in The Great Gatsby

21. Imagery

Imagery appeals to readers’ senses through highly descriptive language. It’s crucial for any writer hoping to follow the rule of "show, don’t tell," as strong imagery truly paints a picture of the scene at hand.

Example: “In the hard-packed dirt of the midway, after the glaring lights are out and the people have gone to bed, you will find a veritable treasure of popcorn fragments, frozen custard dribblings, candied apples abandoned by tired children, sugar fluff crystals, salted almonds, popsicles, partially gnawed ice cream cones and wooden sticks of lollipops.” — Charlotte's Web by E.B. White

22. In Medias Res

In medias res is a Latin term that means "in the midst of things" and is a way of starting a narrative without exposition or contextual information. It launches straight into a scene or action that is already unfolding. 

Example: “Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice.” — The opening line of One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez

23. Irony

Irony creates a contrast between how things seem and how they really are. There are three types of literary irony: dramatic (when readers know what will happen before characters do), situational (when readers expect a certain outcome, only to be surprised by a turn of events), and verbal (when the intended meaning of a statement is the opposite of what was said).

Example: This opening scene from Orson Welles’ A Touch of Evil is a great example of how dramatic irony can create tension.

24. Isocolon

If you’re a neat freak who likes things just so, isocolon is the literary device for you. This is when two or more phrases or clauses have similar structure, rhythm, and even length — such that, when stacked up on top of each other, they would line up perfectly. Isocolon often crops up in brand slogans and famous sayings; the quick, balanced rhythm makes the phrase catchier and more memorable.

Example: Veni, vidi, vici (“I came, I saw, I conquered”)

25. Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition places two or more dissimilar characters, themes, concepts, etc. side by side, and the profound contrast highlights their differences. Why is juxtaposition such an effective literary device? Well, because sometimes the best way for us to understand something is by understanding what it’s not.

Example: In the opening lines of A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens uses juxtaposition to emphasize the societal disparity that led to the French Revolution: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness…”

Similar terms: oxymoron, paradox

26. Litotes

Litotes (pronounced lie-toe-teez) is the signature literary device of the double negative. Writers use litotes to express certain sentiments through their opposites, by saying that that opposite is not the case. Don’t worry, it makes more sense with the examples. 😉

Examples: “You won’t be sorry” (meaning you’ll be happy); “you’re not wrong” (meaning you’re right); “I didn’t not like it” (meaning I did)

27. Malapropism

If Shakespeare is the king of metaphors, Michael Scott is the king of malapropisms. A malapropism is when similar-sounding words replace their appropriate counterparts, typically to comic effect — one of the most commonly cited is “dance a flamingo,” rather than a “flamenco.” Malapropisms are often employed in dialogue when a character flubs up their speech.

Example: “I am not to be truffled with.”

28. Metaphor

A metaphor compares two similar things by saying that one of them is the other. As you'd likely expect, when it comes to literary devices, this one is a heavy hitter. And if a standard metaphor doesn't do the trick, a writer can always try an extended metaphor: a metaphor that expands on the initial comparison through more elaborate parallels.

Example: Metaphors are literature’s bread and butter (metaphor intended) — good luck finding a novel that is free of them. Here’s one from Frances Hardinge’s A Face Like Glass: “Wishes are thorns, he told himself sharply. They do us no good, just stick into our skin and hurt us.”

29. Metonymy

Metonymy is like symbolism, but even more so. A metonym doesn’t just symbolize something else, it comes to serve as a synonym for that thing or things — typically, a single object embodies an entire institution.

Examples: “The crown” representing the monarchy, “Washington” representing the U.S. government

Similar term: synecdoche

30. Motif

Whatever form a motif takes, it recurs throughout the novel and helps develop the theme of the narrative. This might be a symbol, concept, or image.

Example: In Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, trains are an omnipresent motif that symbolize transition, derailment, and ultimately violent death and destruction.

Similar term: symbol

31. Onomatopoeia

Amusingly, onomatopoeia (itself a difficult-to-pronounce word) refers to words that sound like the thing they’re referring to. Well-known instances of onomatopoeia include whiz, buzz, snap, grunt, etc.

Example: The excellent children's book Click, Clack, Moo: Cows That Type. “Farmer Brown has a problem. His cows like to type. All day long he hears: Click, clack, moo. Click, clack, moo. Clickety, clack, moo.”

32. Oxymoron

An oxymoron comes from two contradictory words that describe one thing. While juxtaposition contrasts two story elements, oxymorons are about the actual words you are using.

Example: "Parting is such sweet sorrow.” — Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare. (Find 100 more examples of oxymorons here.)

Similar terms: juxtaposition, paradox

33. Paradox

Paradox derives from the Greek word paradoxon, which means “beyond belief.” It’s a statement that asks people to think outside the box by providing seemingly illogical — and yet actually true — premises.

Example: In George Orwell’s 1984, the slogan of the totalitarian government is built on paradoxes: “War is Peace, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength.” While we might read these statements as obviously contradictory, in the context of Orwell’s novel, these blatantly corrupt sentiments have become an accepted truth.

Similar terms: oxymoron, juxtaposition

34. Personification

Personification uses human traits to describe non-human things. Again, while the aforementioned anthropomorphism actually applies these traits to non-human things, personification means the behavior of the thing does not actually change. It's personhood in figurative language only.

Example: “Just before it was dark, as they passed a great island of Sargasso weed that heaved and swung in the light sea as though the ocean were making love with something under a yellow blanket, his small line was taken by a dolphin.” — The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway

Similar term: anthropomorphism

35. Point of view

Point of view is, of course, the mode of narration in a story. There are many POVs an author can choose, and each one will have a different impact on the reading experience.

Example: Second person POV is uncommon because it directly addresses the reader — not an easy narrative style to pull off. One popular novel that manages to employ this perspective successfully is Bright Lights, Big City by Jay McInerney: “You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details are fuzzy.”

36. Polysyndeton

Instead of using a single conjunction in a lengthy statements, polysyndeton uses several in succession for a dramatic effect. This one is definitely for authors looking to add a bit of artistic flair to their writing, or who are hoping to portray a particular (usually naïve) sort of voice.

Example: “Luster came away from the flower tree and we went along the fence and they stopped and we stopped and I looked through the fence while Luster was hunting in the grass.” — The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner

37. Repetition

Repetition, repetition, repetition… where would we be without it? Though too much repetition is rarely a good thing, occasional repetition can be used quite effectively to drill home a point, or to create a certain atmosphere. For example, horror writers often use repetition to make the reader feel trapped and scared.

Example: In The Shining, Jack Torrance types over and over again on his pages,  “All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.” In this case, obsessive repetition demonstrates the character’s unraveling mind.

Similar term: anaphora

38. Satire

Writers use satire to make fun of some aspect of human nature or society — usually through exaggeration, ridicule, or irony. There are countless ways to satirize something; most of the time, you know it when you read it.

Example: The famous adventure novel Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift is a classic example of satire, poking fun at “travelers' tales,” the government, and indeed human nature itself.

39. Simile

A simile draws resemblance between two things by saying “Thing A is like Thing B,” or “Thing A is as [adjective] as Thing B.” Unlike a metaphor, a similar does not posit that these things are the same, only that they are alike. As a result, it is probably the most common literary device in writing — you can almost always recognize a simile through the use of “like” or “as.”

Example: There are two similes in this description from Circe by Madeline Miller: “The ships were golden and huge as leviathans, their rails carved from ivory and horn. They were towed by grinning dolphins or else crewed by fifty black-haired nereids, faces silver as moonlight.”

Similar term: metaphor

40. Soliloquy

Soliloquy involves a character speaking their thoughts aloud, usually at length (and often in a Shakespeare play). The character in question may be alone or in the company of others, but they’re not speaking for the benefit of other people; the purpose of a soliloquy is for a character to reflect independently.

Example: Hamlet’s “to be or not to be” speech, in which he ruminates on the nature of life and death, is a classic dramatic soliloquy.

41. Symbolism

Authors turn to tangible symbols to represent abstract concepts and ideas in their stories  Symbols typically derive from objects or non-humans — for instance, a dove might represent peace, or raven might represent death.

Example: In The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald uses the eyes of Doctor T.J. Eckleburg (actually a faded optometrist's billboard) to represent God and his judgment of the Jazz Age.

Similar term: motif

42. Synecdoche

Synecdoche is the usage of a part to represent the whole. That is, rather than an object or title that’s merely associated with the larger concept (as in metonymy), synecdoche must actually be attached in some way: either to the name, or to the larger whole itself.

Examples: “Stanford won the game” (Stanford referring to the full title of the Stanford football team) or “Nice wheels you got there” (wheels referring to the entire car)

Similar term: metonymy

43. Tautology

A tautology is when a sentence or short paragraph repeats a word or phrase, expressing the same idea twice. Often, this is a sign that you should trim your work to remove the redundancy (such as “frozen ice”) but can also be used for poetic emphasis.

Example: "But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping, And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door" – The Raven, Edgar Allan Poe

45. Tmesis

Tmesis is when a word or phrase is broken up by an interjecting word, such as abso-freaking-lutely. It’s used to draw out and emphasize the idea, often with a humorous or sarcastic slant.

Example: "This is not Romeo, he's some other where." – Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare

46. Tone

Tone refers to the overall mood and message of your book. It’s established through a variety of means, including voice, characterization, symbolism, and themes. Tone sets the feelings you want your readers to take away from the story.

Example: No matter how serious things get in The Good Place, there is always a chance for a character to redeem themselves by improving their behavior. The tone remains hopeful for the future of humanity in the face of overwhelming odds.

47. Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy is just what it sounds like: a blend of tragedy and comedy. Tragicomedy helps an audience process darker themes by allowing them to laugh at the situation even when circumstances are bleak.

Example: Lemony Snicket’s A Series of Unfortunate Events uses wordplay, absurd situations, and over-the-top characters to provide humor in an otherwise tragic story.

48. Zoomorphism

Zoomorphism is when you take animal traits and assign them to anything that’s not an animal. It’s the opposite of anthropomorphism and personification, and can be either a physical manifestation, such as a god appearing as an animal, or a comparison, like calling someone a busy bee.

Example: When vampires turn into bats, their bat form is an instance of zoomorphism.

Similar terms: anthropomorphism, personification